Gain: An adjustment to the input signal amplitude made before sending the signal through to the rest of the component. This helps to establish a strong enough signal for the rest of the component to manipulate properly. For example, the pre-amp stage in a mixer or guitar amp will generally have a gain control. There are two important considerations when manipulating the gain. First, the higher the gain, the higher the noise floor. That is, even a small amount of noise will get amplified along with the desired signal and since there is an overall upper bound, you are left with a smaller useful dynamic range. Second, it is easy to raise the gain and cause clipping in the rest of the component. In analog components, having the gain high enough to start clipping results in an often pleasing “overdriven” sound. Overdriving the pre-amp on a tube-based amplifier has given a lot of rock and roll it’s signature sound. That said, outside of blues and rock guitar a clean sound is often preferred. In digital components, clipping is generally far from pleasing, even on guitar signals.

Volume: An adjustment to the output amplitude just before a signal leaves the component. Used to ensure the level is appropriate for the next step in the signal chain. In components that push the signal to speakers, this is the adjustment that has the most direct effect on the level of the sound from the speakers.

Level: Also known as the sound pressure level, or SPL, this is the amount of air being moved by sound waves. It is generally measured in decibels.

Loudness: A term used to describe the perception of the sound. Basically, humans do not hear all frequencies that are at the same level as being just as loud as one another. Very generally speaking, lower frequencies need to be at a higher level to be perceived as the same volume as a higher frequency. However, human loudness perception it is not a smooth curve. Typically, there are a couple of “humps”. The first is at around 400-500 Hz. The second is sharper and is at around 4000-5000 Hz.

Syncopation: Syncopation occurs when the emphasis of a measure or phrase is moved off of the beat. An example would be modern dance music, which emphasizes the up-beats of each measure. Another example would be a drum fill that is predominately not on the actual beats of a measure. This emphasis shift is very common in music, often used to break monotony or throw in “a little something extra” into a song to help make a part or section stand out or really pop. More interesting is that the same rhythm can be played either syncopated or not, providing a different sound for each version.

The Guitar Wheel: This is a nifty tool to learn chords, relative keys, and other music theory, both for guitar specifically and for music in general.

String Selection: There are many considerations to think about when selecting strings for your Guitar and/or Bass. There are many types of guitars which utilize different types of strings. For example, an acoustic guitar has different considerations than an electric and even within acoustics there are different types (Concert and Grand Concert, Auditorium and Grand Auditorium, Dreadnought, Jumbo, Travel and Mini-Acoustics, classical, etc.) for which there are different string considerations. For our purpose we’ll focus on electric guitar and Bass. Even though there are still different types of electrics the common considerations are:

• Gauge: (or Thickness) – For both electric bass and guitar there are five main string gauge classifications: Extra Super light, Super Light, Light, Medium, and Heavy for guitars; Ultra Light, Light, Medium, Heavy, and Extra Heavy for bass. The actual gauge of each is measured in thousands of an inch (e.g.: .038) and vary between manufacturers so do look at the actual sizes when you buy. Generally speaking, the lighter the gauge the easier the string is to play (needs less force to push on it), easier to bend, and are less tension on the guitar neck. They also present a brighter sound but have less sustain and volume than heavier strings. The heavier gauges take more force to play (more pressure to push), are harder to bend, and are more tension on the neck than lighter strings. However, they present more volume and sustain than lighter strings and provide a more pounding/driving sound – especially for bass. Some folks prefer to use lighter gauges on the higher strings (first, second, and third or E, B, and G) and heavier on the lower strings (fourth, fifth, and sixth or D, A, and E) to take advantage of the benefits of both. Manufacturers offer combination sets.
• Material: Common materials for electrics are steel, nickel, nickel-plated, stainless steel, chrome, titanium, cobalt, and bronze. Steel and bronze are supposed to present a brighter sound with steel being a bit more crunchy and bronze being a little more on the cleaner side. Nickel is supposed to relay more warmth as is chrome although is has less resonance than nickel. Stainless obviously is more corrosion resistant with a crisper sound and Titanium should be stronger and present a brighter sound. Cobalt presents a brighter tone and is supposed to have better pickup response.
• Winding type: There are three types of windings – Roundwound, Halfround, and Flatwound. Roundwound strings, or rounds are classic and are identifiable by the “ridges” on them. They are supposed to provide more sustain and bite but are the least forgiving with noise when finger sliding. Halfround strings are smoother feeling and present a richer tone but less attack than rounds. Flatwound strings are smooth to the touch, are less responsive overall, and provide a warmer smoother sound with less finger squeak. It is worth noting that on guitar, the high E and B strings are generally not wound, while the G string will be wound or not depending on the manufacturer, gauge, and other considerations. Bass strings are generally always wound.
• Scale Length: This is the distance from the nut to the bridge and varies between manufacturer and guitar. Example scale lengths are the Fender 25-1/2 and Gibson 24-3/4. There are different qualities (E.g.: richer, warmer, stronger, more/less tension etc.) advertised for the different string lengths. However, for this string discussion the important thing to ensure is that you buy strings that match the scale length of your guitar.
• Coated or Uncoated: Uncoated strings are just that. They are the materials listed above with no coating (not counting the nickel plated – that’s a different type of “coating” than this category) and have the qualities and characteristics mentioned above. Coated strings offer many advantages. They are less prone to grime build up so it takes longer for the effects of that build up to affect the sound. The last longer (read: need to replace less often!). Typically the coating is some kind of polymer. Colored coatings are also available. Thicker-coated strings are also better for fretless guitars and basses in that they are less harsh on the fingerboard but have the potential to affect the sound more than a thinner coated string. Coated strings also reduce finger squeak.

Agile: A musical direction meaning to play “swiftly” regarding tempo. In this context, it is pronounced “ah-jee’-lay”.

Common Time: An alternative name for “four-four” (4/4) time. It can be indicated by the letter “C” in the time signature of sheet music. (The “C” is not, technically, an abbreviation of “Common”. See this article on time signatures.)

Mid-side Recording: A recording technique using two microphones. The “mid” microphone is typically one with a cardioid (or other directional) pickup pattern pointed toward the primary source. The “side” microphone is typically one with a figure eight pickup pattern pointed at right angles to the primary source. The “mid” recording is the main, direct part of the sound and is panned to the middle. The “side” recording is the ambient part of the sound and is usually duplicated, phase inverted, and then the original and the duplicate are panned full left and full right, respectively. This, plus some balancing, allows the apparent stereo field to be widened or narrowed giving the recorded sound a more or less spacious feel. Another benefit is that the two sides can be combined with the mid in such a way as to reduce or remove the ambient sounds altogether for a more “true” mono output.

Mid-side Equalization: A very similar stereo field “widening” effect to that of mid-side recording can also be achieved with manipulation of any stereo recording. An artificial mid is created by extracting what is the same between the left and right channels. An artificial side is created by extracting what is different in the left and right channels. The produced mid and side can then be balanced to bring out more of the side, thus widening the stereo field, or less side to narrow it. It is fairly common to clean up a mix with a “muddy” low end, by applying a high pass filter to the side channel. This leaves a cleaner final mix, while still maintaining a good stereo field.

Filter: An audio filter is any effect applied to sound that eliminates part of the sound wave. The most common types are high pass, low pass, and band pass filters which eliminate the low frequencies, high frequencies, and both high and low frequencies, respectively. While not commonly considered a “filter”, analog clipping (used in distortion and overdrive effects) could be viewed as amplitude filters that cut off the top and bottom of the sound waves.

Boost: An audio boost is any effect applied to sound that increases the amplitude of all or part of the frequencies of the sound. The most obvious effect of this is to increase the volume. Boosts that apply only to certain frequencies can have a similar effect to audio filters.

Resolve/Resolution:  In music,when a note, chord, or progression strays from the key and becomes dissonant the act of bringing what is being played back into the key and regaining consonance is called resolving.

Tuning machines: For stringed instruments, these are the tuning knobs usually located on the head stock. The strings are usually place through and/or around the tuning peg and the machine is turned to tension the string. There are many different versions of tuning machines with some being geared (as on many electric guitars) and some not being geared (as on many classical guitars).  Some tuning machines are tapered to guide the string as it is wound around the peg. There too numerous styles and options to mention here and Josh brought many of them to the table for us. It is an interesting option on an instrument worth investigation if anyone is building a guitar or just wants to replace their tuning machines.

Sample Rate:  For audio recording the sample rate is the number of times per second the analog signal is sampled for conversion to digital. As pitch is determined by the frequency (waves per second) of the audio, for digitally encoded audio to resolve a particular pitch, the sample rate must be at least twice the rate of that pitch’s frequency. However, just double the frequency means that the highest frequency will still be potentially distorted. For this reason, the current iTunes-encouraged standard is 96KHz, which is four times the limit of human hearing.

Bit Depth:  For audio recording the bit depth is the number of bits per sample (see sample rate) of the analog signal for conversion to digital. The greater the bit depth, the more resolution in terms of volume (amplitude). A higher bit depth allows for greater differentiation in volume, but also increases the “signal to noise” ratio of the encoding of the sample. That is, during encoding, rounding must be done to convert from the continuous analog amplitude to one of the allowed values given the bit depth. The greater the bit depth, the smaller the rounding error will be. The current iTunes-encouraged standard is 24-bit.

Treble:  The origin of the word is based off of the Latin triplum, being the third range of sound for monk singers which had Bass, Tenor, and the third (higher) sound often sung by boys.

Potpourri:  A medley with no repeating parts and is not concerned with smooth transitions

Prima Donna:  Term originated with lead vocalist of the opera I guess whom may have been pretty full of themselves.  Don’t ask why this came up as a vocabulary word with our band…..

Suspended (sus) chords: Chords which replace the third with either the perfect fourth or the major second. Because these chords do not play the third in the scale, they are neither truly major nor minor.

Ninth chords: A ninth chord, for example C9, is formed using the major triad, plus the seventh and ninth scale degree. When called a “dominant ninth” or when not otherwise specified, the chord uses a minor seventh. If the chord is called major (Cmaj9), then the major seventh is used. In both cases, the ninth is an octave above the major second, not the minor second.

Impromptu: In both musical performance and general usage, impromptu means, without pre-planning. For example, a band taking requests from the audience is creating an impromptu setlist.

Improvisation: Creating music (or anything else, really) “on the fly”. For example, a Jam band might improvise additional sections to their existing songs.

Enharmonic: Notes that map to the same pitch are considered enharmonic. For example, C♯ and D♭.

Fermata: A fermata is a musical notation symbol placed over a note or rest to indicate that the note or rest should be held longer than its typical duration. The exact length of the hold is left to the discretion of the performers and/or conductor, however most often the length is doubled or more. Although less common, an inverted fermata can be used under a note or rest. The effect is the same. Due to its appearance, the fermata is also sometimes called the “birdseye” or “cyclops eye”. Due to its effect, it is also called a “hold”, “pause”, or “grand pause”. For more information and a visual example, see the Wikipedia entry.

Bus: In audio mixing, a bus is any path through the mixer that allows for adding multiple audio signals together, processing them as a group, and directing them on to another bus or to an output channel.

Channel: In audio mixing, a channel is an input or output to get audio signals into or out of the mixer. Most mixers allow each channel to have its own processing (e.g. equalizer, FX, volume fader, and pan). Mixing hardware is often sold by the number of channels available. A 32-channel mixer, will have 32 input channels. A 4/2 desktop mixer will have 4 input channels and 2 output channels.

Polychord: (Also called a bi-chord) are two chords played at the same time.  An example of this is when a pianist plays one chord with the right hand and concurrently, another chord with the left hand.

Delay:  For audio recording and guitar FX nomenclature, delay is a type of buffering that delays the output of the signal by an amount of time. The signal is stored in a buffer (originally on tape) in the effects equipment and played back after a period, generally selected by the user. A delay effect can repeat multiple times, usually—though not always—with each repeat progressively quieter.

Echo:  In audio FX terminology, echo is nearly synonymous with delay. However, echo FX generally “color” the repeated sounds using a low, high, or band pass filter. This better simulates the sound of what the layperson would call an echo.

Reverb:  In audio FX terminology, reverb is similar to, but distinct from delay and echo. It is similar in that it repeats the captured audio. However, reverb is generally attempting to simulate the bouncing of sound off of many surfaces. As such, rather than controlling the number of repeats, the user tends to control the “amount” of reverb. That is, the number of repeats are more randomized and played back much closer to the time of the original signal. Similar to echo, reverb pedals also tend to color the sound of the reverberations.

Midas preamp:  Midas is a designer and manufacturer of audio equipment.   The Midas preamp is commonly used in Front of House (FoH) equipment, monitor consoles, and mixers.  Their A/D convertors and sampling rate reportedly has better sound quality than many other brands of preammps.

Hi Z:  Z is commonly used as a reference to impedance.  A hi-Z input on an audio device is a high impedance input.  An unamplified electronic guitar or bass needs to be plugged into a hi-z jack.  Since the guitar cable is not balance the signal will be degraded if connected to a low-z jack.

RTA:  Real Time Analyzer  is used to read frequency response.  In the case of music recording/mixing/playback it is used to adjust and equalize the sound for different applicatoins.  In a live venue it allows for mixing the sound to compensate for room sound anomalies.  For post process mixing it aids the person mixing/mastering by providing a visual display of the actual frequencies to augment what they are hearing.

Truss rod:  Truss rods strengthen the necks of stringed instruments and help prevent unwanted bowing introduced by the tension of the strings and climate.  They are commonly made of steel but there are some different composites used, such as graphite.   There are single and dual truss rods.  Both run the length of the neck under the finger board.  The single truss rod usually runs in a curved channel that allows for more of a fulcrum when being tightened.  The dual truss rod is installed in a straight channel since the rods “bow” in different directions and can warp or adjust the neck in either direction.  Most truss rods are adjusted by turning an adjustment bolt.  These are located at different places on different instruments.

Reprise:  In music, a reprise is  a repeated passage in music or a repeat of a section of music or an entire performance.

Swing Feel: As opposed to “straight time”,  giving a rhythm a swing feel most commonly implies lengthening of the first half of a beat and shortening the second half. So where a straight count of eighth notes in 4/4 time might be verablized, “dah-dah dah-dah dah-dah dah-dah,” a swung count might be, “daah-dit daah-dit daah-dit daah-dit.”

Harmonics (in guitar playing): Playing a note in such a way that some of the harmonic tones are cancelled. These can be broken down into several types, including: natural or open harmonics, artificial harmonics, tapped harmonics, and pinch harmonics (squealies). See: Guitar Harmonics

Natural or Open Harmonics: Picking or plucking an open string while lightly touching one of the node points on the string, quickly releasing the touch just after the string starts to vibrate. There are node points in many places along the neck, however typically the 12th, 7th, or 5th fret are the most used and easiest to make ring.

Artifical Harmonics: Similar in concept to natural harmonics, artificial harmonics are played by fretting a note and lightly touching and releasing the point 12 frets up from the fretted note while picking or plucking the string. For example, if the second fret is pressed, the harmonic would be played at the fourteenth fret. Theoretically, any of the other nodes of the fretted string would work, however in practice they are more rarely used and somewhat harder to play.

Tapped Harmonics: Tapped harmonics are similar to artificial harmonics in that the harmonic is played typically twelve frets up from a fretted note. However, rather than playing the string while lightly touching the twelfth fret up, the fret is “tapped” with the picking hand. This often results in both the note at the twelfth fret up being heard as well as the harmonic.

Pinch Harmonics (Squealies): Pinch harmonics are played by letting the thumb or finger of the picking hand lightly touch the string after the plectrum has picked the string. These can be done at several nodes, most commonly at about the location of the neck pickup on an electric guitar. These harmonics typically result in a very high-pitched sound, leading them to be called “squealies”. Because of the location near the end of the string, the lack of consistent references (i.e. no frets) to use as a guide to the node points, and the overall trickiness of touching the string lightly at the right time with the thumb or finger while picking, pinch harmonics require significant practice to play consistently well.

The Dimebag Squealy: The “Dimebag squealy” is an open harmonic played in a specific way using a vibrato arm (aka “whammy bar”) to get more of a pinch harmonic sound. It is somewhat difficult to explain. Rather than picking the string, the fretting hand “flicks” the string near the point of the harmonic node. Then, the whammy bar (most often a Floyd Rose style) is used to significantly loosen the string. Finally, while letting the whammy bar up, the fretting hand lightly touches and releases the harmonic node. The note becomes a squeal, and the whammy is used to vary the tone/pitch as desired. Here is a video of Dimebag Darrel himself explaining the technique: https://youtu.be/nGzxKNz3cgc

Open Chords: Chords played with some open (non-fretted) strings. Usually the first chords learned when learning to play guitar.

Moveable Chords: Chords played with no open strings. Thus, the shape is moveable to other locations up and down the neck to create other chords.

Barre Chords: A special group of moveable chords where the index finger creates essentially a capo-like backstop and otherwise using shapes similar to open chords.

We have continued our bi-weekly vocabulary meetings and have some new terms for everyone:

Medley:  In music, it is a piece composed of parts of existing musical pieces, usually short in length per existing piece.  We discussed that medleys were often used in concerts where the existing band doesn’t have all the original members, some of which have songwriting credits on previous hits.  Medleys allow these bands to perform what the crowd desires.

Chord Progression: A sequence of chords, usually repeating across sections of a song.  There are usually three chords which are played in some manner of succession to create the melody.  Twelve bar blues is an extended three chord progression.

Cadence (Harmonic): A key-establishing chord progression that creates a sense of resolution.  One example is a blues turnaround.

Cadence (Rhythmic): A pattern of rhythm that, similar to a harmonic cadence, creates a sense of finality or resolution.  Snare drum cadences for marching bands are a common example.

Modulation: Changing the current key (tonic) of the song to another key.  This can change the mood of the song between sections or movements.

Capo Transposition: When using a capo but also using the standard chord fingering, a new chord is produced.  Since bass players rarely use capos, they need to know how to transpose the new chord played into the notes being generated.  One capo transposition chart can be found here.

Bend Notation: There are three types of bends which can be performed on a string; immediate bend where the string is bent and then released to no sound, bend and release where the string is bent and then maneuvered back to normal producing sound throughout, and prebend and release where the string is bent before the string is struck and then maneuvered back to normal.  These three bends are noted on classical or tab notation in different ways.  An example of each, in order listed, is here.

Keeping up with our vocabulary discussions, our most recent set of terms branched out from our previous focus on musical notation and terms. This week we covered hardware, techniques, and theory.

Cent: Cent is a unit of measurement used to define a standard unit of difference between frequencies to fit the logarithmic nature of notes. If A4 is out of tune by 5 cents, it will be the same note (but different octave) as A3 out of tune by 5 cents, even though the frequency differences between each note and it’s out of tune version are different.

Circle of Fifths: The circle of fifths is a circular chart which shows related chords and scales that work well when played together. It is easy to use, as you can simply find a chord you want to play and choose any of the adjacent chords on the chart to play with it. The chart has two concentric circles, with the outer circle showing major chords and the inner circle showing minor chords. The minor chords are also considered adjacent to the major chords, including diagonally. So, if C is your starting chord, the circle of fifths shows five chords to chose from: F, G, Dm, Am, and Em. This is a good, clear version of the circle of fifths.

Drum Rudiments: Drum rudiments are common sticking patterns in drumming that have been identified, defined, and named. There are 40 standard rudiments which include different drum rolls, diddle patterns (hitting with the same hand twice in a row), and patterns that use grace notes to form flams and ruffs. Drummers usually learn most, if not all, of the patterns fairly early in formal training, as doing so builds the muscle memory to play them and gives drummers the vocabulary necessary to discuss rhythms and sheet music with a common language. [More Info]

Pickup: A typical electric guitar pickup is a combination of magnets and wire that “picks up” the vibration of the strings, converting that motion to an electric current. That current is sent to the output jack and can be converted into sound by amps, speakers, etc. There are also piezoelectric pickups that work using the piezoelectric effect.

Single-coil Pickup: The simplest type of magnetic pickup. True to its name, a single-coil pickup consists of one wire coiled around the magnet or magnets that are placed underneath the strings. Based upon a number of factors, including the resistance of the wire, the strength of the magnet(s), material and thickness of the strings, etc, the sound produced by different single-coil pickups can vary widely.

Humbucking Pickup: A humbucking pickup or humbucker is essentially a pair of single-coil pickups arranged so that the opposite magnetic poles are pointing at the strings. That is, one points its “north” at the strings and the other its “south”. The two pickups are then wired together either in series or parallel. This is done for two reasons. First, single-coil pickups act, to a degree, as a directional antenna. They pick up electromagnetic interference from nearby sources such as fluorescent lights. The opposing orientation of the two magnetic cores in a humbucker cancels out this effect. Second, because there are two pickups, the amplitude of the output signal from a humbucker is generally greater at certain harmonic frequencies than with a single coil. This leads to humbuckers having what is described as a “fatter” sound.

At our latest “music lunch”, we again discussed some vocabulary words. We have also discussed creating a special “glossary” section of the blog that we can use for reference. For now, however, we are keeping track of them through simple posts. Without further build-up, here is our list from this week:

Accelerando: Often abbreviated as “acc,” means to gradually increase the speed, or tempo.

Ritardo: Often abbreviated as “rit”, means to gradually decrease the speed, or tempo.

A tempo: A term meaning to return to the previous tempo.

Chord inversion: While “inversion” has a few meanings, a chord inversion is generally referring to a triad based upon its lowest note. For example, the C Major triad consists of C, E, and G. If the lowest note played is a C, the chord is considered in the “root position”. The first inversion would have an E as the lowest note, and the second inversion would have a G. The order of the other notes in the chord, other that the lowest that is, does not matter in terms of what inversion it is called. The full ordering is called the “voicing” of the chord.

P Bass: The Precision Bass, or P Bass as it is more commonly called, was the very first electric bass. Designed by Leo Fender and first sold in 1951, it had one single-coil pickup and a slab body. By 1957, it had evolved into the version seen today with a single, split-coil, hum-bucking pickup, a contour body, and larger headstock. The P Bass has a deep, warm tone with strong mid-range presence. [More info]

J Bass: The Jazz Bass, or J Bass was conceived by Fender in 1960 as a deluxe model that would be easier to play and have a brighter sound than the P Bass. The name came from the Jazzmaster guitar, which was released slightly earlier and had a similar body shape. The J Bass generally has two, single-coil pickups, and its brighter sound is used when a more “front of the mix” sound is desired. [More info]

U Bass: The U Bass, first produced by Kala Brand Music in 2009, is essentially a ukulele turned into a bass. Kala started with a baritone-size ukulele body, adding two inches to the neck for a 21″ scale length. In order to produce solid, bass foundational tones, the strings are specifically made for this shorter scale length. They are generally polyurethane with electric and acoustic-electric version using piezo pickups. [More info]

As a continuation of our last post “What do WE know?” we decided to keep a running list of the music-related vocabulary that we are learning.  Something that we can go back and visit when needed.  We discussed having an on-line document or one on our local NAS.  However, we decided that keeping it in series of Blog posts that can be grouped would add the benefits of sharing the vocabulary with other readers of our blog plus provide the opportunity for someone to expand, expound, or correct us if we’ve not covered a term adequately or correctly.  The start of our vocabulary list is thus:

Drop 2 Chords: A new chord created by taking the second to last note in that chord’s scale and making it the lowest note in the chord.

Pop: Bass playing method where a string is pulled away from the finger board and then released, letting it hit against the frets.

Slap: Bass playing method where a string is hit toward the finger board, making it strike the frets.

Pluck: Bass (or other stringed instrument) playing method using the finger(s) to pull the string(s).

Crescendo:  Indicates a gradual increase in the volume of the music across a musical time period (note, notes, measure, measures, etc.) often notated by an elongated less than sign (<) above or below the music staff.

Capo:  Short for the Italian word capotasto which means head or leader. In music notation, it means the beginning of the piece. For the guitar it can mean the nut, or more commonly a device placed on the finger board behind a fret to raise the strings to the pitch of that fret. Essentially, a capo device, moves the effective location of the nut.

Coda: A term used to indicate the end of a musical passage or anything that is the end of a musical part (song, phrase, solo, etc.)