This definition is not “beat” we normally think of with the rhythmic speed at which a song is played.  Another definition of beat is related to acoustics.  In music acoustics, a beat is the interference pattern between two sounds (wavelengths or sine waves) of slightly different frequencies perceived as a periodic variation in volume whose rate is the difference of the two frequencies.  For example, when tuning a a stringed instrument (guitar, bass, etc.) with harmonics, it is the warbling sound the two different harmonics make with each other that eventually is no longer heard once the two strings are tuned so that the harmonics match.  Once they are in tune the beat is no longer heard.

Saturation

Saturation, specifically magnetic tape saturation, is an effect that happens naturally due the physical limit of the amount of magnetism a magnetic tape can hold. Attempting to add a stronger signal than the tape can handle results in a form of clipping distortion. Due to the relative power levels and natural interactions of sounds at different frequencies, lower pitches tend to saturate more than higher ones. Combining this with magnetic tape’s tendency to “self-erase”, particularly at higher frequencies, and it creates a “warm” sound that is different than most other forms of distortion. Today, saturation, like most effects can be and is modeled in many DAWs and plugins.

Breakdown

A breakdown is a section of a song where some or all of the instruments play a solo part, often as refrain or variation of musical themes established earlier in the song.  It serves as a third section to add flavor to the normal Verse-Chorus structure, and can be considered a type of Bridge section.

This is a popular composition element in Bluegrass and Heavy Metal, but may have originally been invented by Disco DJs.  They would drop all other instruments from the mix, except the drums, while they arranged their equipment for the next track.  This removal of all tonal sections gives them room to introduce a new melody without having to worry about the old key signature or themes.

Sources

Sweetwater.com’s Glossary

Sound on Sound

Wikipedia

The purpose of a microphone is to convert sound energy to another form of energy that is more compatible with the recoding medium. In most cases, the air movement and/or pressure changes caused by sound waves are converted, into electrical impulses. This process is called transduction.

Types of Microphones

We will cover two mechanisms of achieving this transduction: condenser/capacitive and dynamic. Piezo microphones, while used in many music recording and performance applications are seldom used to record audio directly. We may cover them in a separate article. Other types of microphones, such as fiber optic see less use in the music world.

Condenser

Condenser microphones place a thin diaphragm close to a back plate. Both are conductive and given an electrical charge either from a battery or via “phantom power” provided by an external source, like a mixer. Two separated electrically charged plates makes a capacitor. When sound pressure hits the diaphragm, the diaphragm moves closer to the back plate. This changes the capacitance, resulting in a voltage change. That voltage change is the electrical signal that we are looking for, but it is often converted into a current change using a transistor.

Simplified electrical diagram of a condenser microphone.

Special types of condensers, called electret condenser microphones, or just electret microphones use a material for the diaphragm that has a permanent electrical charge. This allows them to be smaller and more robust than other condensers. They are often used in cell phones, laptops, etc. though seldom in music recording.

Dynamic

Dynamic microphones use magnets and a conductive element that moves in response to sound pressure. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, electromagnetic induction causes a current to be generated in the conductor. Variations in the current are the electrical signal dynamic microphones provide.

Typical dynamic microphones use a diaphragm of non-conductive material with a coiled conductive wire attached. The diaphragm moves in response to air pressure changes caused by sound waves. This compresses the coil, creating the movement that creates the current.

Simplified electrical diagram of a dynamic microphone.

Ribbon (Wait, Three Types?)

Ribbon microphones are dynamic microphones, in that they use electromagnetic induction. However, they are worth calling out separately. Instead of a separate diaphragm and conductive coil, they use a “ribbon” of metal that acts as both. This ribbon is suspended between the poles of a magnet. Ribbon microphones generate variances in current due to the speed the ribbon moves, which is directly proportional to the velocity of the air particles themselves. In almost all other microphones, including other dynamic mics, the generated current varies based upon the distance the sound pressure moves a diaphragm. The differences in construction and operating principles lead ribbon microphones to be used in different circumstances than other dynamic microphones.

Simplified electrical diagram of a ribbon microphone.

Choosing Between Condensers and Dynamic Microphones

Condenser microphones have a tendency to be “brighter” and “more live” than dynamic microphones. Essentially, they pick up high end frequencies better and tend to be more sensitive with a lower noise floor. For these reasons, they are often preferred in studio environments, especially when capturing or accentuating the high end is desirable.

Dynamic microphones are often favored in live environments where durability is required. They are the ones to use if you plan to “drop the mic”, though please do not do this with any of ours. The diaphragms and other components are generally far stronger, though not unbreakable. A side effect of the beefier diaphragm is that it is harder to move. Because of this dynamic microphones tend to be less sensitive. A more significant factor is that higher frequencies have less energy and tend to be lost more quickly. This is why condensers have a “brighter” sound. The lower sensitivity, especially on the high end, can be beneficial in live environments. It makes feedback less likely and reduces potential for picking up sounds from other instruments/vocalists. Dynamic microphones also generally require no phantom or battery power, though “active” dynamic mics do exist and provide a sensitivity or gain boost.

Ribbon microphones share many characteristics with other dynamic mics. The key difference is in the use of the thin ribbon as opposed to a heavy diaphragm. Ribon microphones have a comparatively flat frequency response. Where other dynamic microphones are characterized as losing the high end, ribbon mics are described as slightly accentuating the low end. Historically, the thin ribbon was a significant weakness for these microphones. Early versions could break while simply being moved across a room while uncovered. These days, materials are available to make them significantly more durable, though not quite as durable as non-ribbon dynamic microphones. That said, a high quality ribbon microphone will generally cost a lot compared to the other two types.

The other primary consideration when choosing a microphone is the directionality or polar pattern. We will discuss that in a future article. Stay tuned.

Sources and Further Reading:

• Wikipedia
• A Brief History of Microphones
• Sweetwater.com’s Glossary
• Georgia State University’s Hyperphysics Site

A room mode is a frequency that resonates due to reflection from the surfaces in a room. Essentially, if the length between surfaces (or the sum of lengths between surfaces) is a multiple of a particular frequency, then that frequency may be amplified. Room modes can be described by the which walls cause them. An “oblique room mode” is one in which all four walls plus the ceiling and floor are involved. A “tangential room mode” involves reflection from two pairs of parallel surfaces such as all four walls or two opposite walls and the ceiling and floor. They tend to be stronger than oblique room modes. The strongest room modes are “axial room modes”, which involve only two parallel surfaces.

Hard, parallel surfaces will resonate at very narrow frequency bands causing very audible spikes. This is one reason acoustic treatment often involves softer materials and often comes in panels with oddly shaped surfaces. The softer materials absorb some of the vibration, “killing” the sound. The odd surfaces prevent what vibration is reflected from subsequently resonating with other parallel surfaces.

 Rock Opera

.A collection of Rock Songs which tell a complete story – similar to a traditional opera but with Rock music.  This is different from a musical in which there is also spoken dialog

Impedance

Impedance is the resistance of a circuit to an alternating current of a certain frequency.  Impedance is composed of static resistance (as we would measure in a purely DC system), as well as the capacitance and inductance of all the components in a system.  The resonant frequency of the Impedance is the frequency at which an AC signal encounters the least resistance.  Each component in a system will increase the overall Impedance, but may change the resonant frequency of that Impedance.  Many audio components are designed to produce the most desirable sound when loaded with a certain Impedance of a certain frequency.

Conventional pickups, for instance, are designed to operate optimally at high impedance (often around 1 megaohm).  So, matching the impedance of you amp/effects to your pickups often results in the most desirable sound.  This is called Loading.  Any effects that use a Buffer will isolate the impedance on the input and output sides, so impedance matching can help determine the optimal order for your audio equipment chain.

Harmonic Rhythm:

The harmonic rhythm of a piece refers to how often the chords change. Music in which the chords change rarely has a slow harmonic rhythm; music in which the chords change often has a fast harmonic rhythm. Harmonic rhythm can be completely separate from other rhythms and tempos. For example, a section of music with many short, quick notes but only one chord has fast rhythms but a slow harmonic rhythm.

Pitch Pipe:

A pitch pipe is an instrument through which one can blow to hear a note, usually used for tuning. While a common form of a modern pitch pipe is a round disk with 13 holes around the edge, one for each chromatic note plus an octave, they used to be a single cynlinder, or pipe, which a lever which, when adjusted, would change the note played. This is why it is called a pitch pipe. Though technically a musical instrument, pitch pipes are not normally used for performing or playing music. They are less accurate than tuning forks, but in many ways far more convenient.

Sources:

Wikipedia

Sweetwater.com’s Glossary

Musical notation is a visual representation of music and how it should be performed. Modern or standard musical notation makes use of many symbols, too many to list here. For more information see this Wikipedia article.

Common Time

Common time is another way of saying 4/4 time. It is so called as it is the most common time signature is many forms of western music, including rock, country, and pop. In standard notation, it is can be symbolized by what appears to be a “c” rather than the more common four over four notation. The symbol is actually derived from a broken circle for reasons explained in this Wikipedia article.

Cut Time

Cut time is another way of saying 2/2 time. It is common in marches and musical theater. It has a faster “feel” than common time. In standard notation it can be symbolized by what appears to be a “c” with a vertical line down the center. For more, see this Wikipedia article.

Zipper Noise

In digital audio production, a “zipper noise” is an audible artifact caused by making changes to digital settings. It is often most pronounced when changing delay or reverb times. It is largely caused by the fact that digital adjustments are, by definition, made in steps. Analog can be a continuous change, preventing many of these artifacts.

Sampler: A sampler is a machine or software program used to play existing sounds, either in part or whole. The sounds played could be an audio recording, a previously created synth, or any other type of audio. Samplers will usually give you ways to modify the sound in various ways: changing the speed or pitch, reversing the sound, adding effects, etc.

Sequencer: A sequencer is a machine or software program that lets you take existing audio and sequence it together to make music. The general idea is to place one or more sounds at the beginning, then place one more sounds after the first ones (so that they play in order), and continue doing so until the song is complete.

Synthesizers, samplers, and sequencers are the basis of electronic music, and often you will find software that performs all three of these functions, negating the need for multiple programs.

ADSR (Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release) Envelope: The amplitude envelope of a single signal run through a synthesizer. The attack describes the time it takes from the signal start for the note’s amplitude to go from zero to a peak amplitude. The decay is the time it takes for the amplitude to drop from that peak to the sustain level. Sustain, unlike the other parameters, is an amplitude level, not a time. It is a plateau where the amplitude will remain until the end of the signal. When the signal ends, the release is the time it take for the amplitude to drop from its current level to zero.

Breathing: Also known as pumping, this is an effect caused by use of a compressor. As a compressor artificially changes the volume, “ideal” release settings will make the change fairly transparent as it will effectively match the expected release of the source. If the settings are not a match, the signal will sound like it is “breathing”. Originally, this effect was considered undesirable. More recently, this effect has been used in various ways. One, it gives a lot of electronic dance music its signature pumping bass lines. Second, along with “sidechaining” it is used to help automatically keep a bass in sync with a kick drum.

Antecedent Phrase: A phrase that “asks a question” or lends itself to a musical response.  The first half of a “question and answer” sequence.

Consequent Phrase: The “answer” to an Antecedent Phrase.  Usually a phrase that is a modification or compliment to the Antecedent.

Parallel Period: A musical phrase consisting of an antecedent and a consequent phrase.  The consequent is a slight variation on the antecedent, usually with the same musical construction, but differing in cadence.  Notated as A | A’

Double Period: A more complex parallel period usually in the form of A | B | A | B’.  It is essentially a repeated set of antecedent and consequent phrases, where the second repetition of the consequent phrase differs slightly to close the idea.

Volume: An adjustment to the output amplitude just before a signal leaves the component. Used to ensure the level is appropriate for the next step in the signal chain. In components that push the signal to speakers, this is the adjustment that has the most direct effect on the level of the sound from the speakers.

Level: Also known as the sound pressure level, or SPL, this is the amount of air being moved by sound waves. It is generally measured in decibels.

Loudness: A term used to describe the perception of the sound. Basically, humans do not hear all frequencies that are at the same level as being just as loud as one another. Very generally speaking, lower frequencies need to be at a higher level to be perceived as the same volume as a higher frequency. However, human loudness perception it is not a smooth curve. Typically, there are a couple of “humps”. The first is at around 400-500 Hz. The second is sharper and is at around 4000-5000 Hz.

Syncopation: Syncopation occurs when the emphasis of a measure or phrase is moved off of the beat. An example would be modern dance music, which emphasizes the up-beats of each measure. Another example would be a drum fill that is predominately not on the actual beats of a measure. This emphasis shift is very common in music, often used to break monotony or throw in “a little something extra” into a song to help make a part or section stand out or really pop. More interesting is that the same rhythm can be played either syncopated or not, providing a different sound for each version.

The Guitar Wheel: This is a nifty tool to learn chords, relative keys, and other music theory, both for guitar specifically and for music in general.

String Selection: There are many considerations to think about when selecting strings for your Guitar and/or Bass. There are many types of guitars which utilize different types of strings. For example, an acoustic guitar has different considerations than an electric and even within acoustics there are different types (Concert and Grand Concert, Auditorium and Grand Auditorium, Dreadnought, Jumbo, Travel and Mini-Acoustics, classical, etc.) for which there are different string considerations. For our purpose we’ll focus on electric guitar and Bass. Even though there are still different types of electrics the common considerations are:

• Gauge: (or Thickness) – For both electric bass and guitar there are five main string gauge classifications: Extra Super light, Super Light, Light, Medium, and Heavy for guitars; Ultra Light, Light, Medium, Heavy, and Extra Heavy for bass. The actual gauge of each is measured in thousands of an inch (e.g.: .038) and vary between manufacturers so do look at the actual sizes when you buy. Generally speaking, the lighter the gauge the easier the string is to play (needs less force to push on it), easier to bend, and are less tension on the guitar neck. They also present a brighter sound but have less sustain and volume than heavier strings. The heavier gauges take more force to play (more pressure to push), are harder to bend, and are more tension on the neck than lighter strings. However, they present more volume and sustain than lighter strings and provide a more pounding/driving sound – especially for bass. Some folks prefer to use lighter gauges on the higher strings (first, second, and third or E, B, and G) and heavier on the lower strings (fourth, fifth, and sixth or D, A, and E) to take advantage of the benefits of both. Manufacturers offer combination sets.
• Material: Common materials for electrics are steel, nickel, nickel-plated, stainless steel, chrome, titanium, cobalt, and bronze. Steel and bronze are supposed to present a brighter sound with steel being a bit more crunchy and bronze being a little more on the cleaner side. Nickel is supposed to relay more warmth as is chrome although is has less resonance than nickel. Stainless obviously is more corrosion resistant with a crisper sound and Titanium should be stronger and present a brighter sound. Cobalt presents a brighter tone and is supposed to have better pickup response.
• Winding type: There are three types of windings – Roundwound, Halfround, and Flatwound. Roundwound strings, or rounds are classic and are identifiable by the “ridges” on them. They are supposed to provide more sustain and bite but are the least forgiving with noise when finger sliding. Halfround strings are smoother feeling and present a richer tone but less attack than rounds. Flatwound strings are smooth to the touch, are less responsive overall, and provide a warmer smoother sound with less finger squeak. It is worth noting that on guitar, the high E and B strings are generally not wound, while the G string will be wound or not depending on the manufacturer, gauge, and other considerations. Bass strings are generally always wound.
• Scale Length: This is the distance from the nut to the bridge and varies between manufacturer and guitar. Example scale lengths are the Fender 25-1/2 and Gibson 24-3/4. There are different qualities (E.g.: richer, warmer, stronger, more/less tension etc.) advertised for the different string lengths. However, for this string discussion the important thing to ensure is that you buy strings that match the scale length of your guitar.
• Coated or Uncoated: Uncoated strings are just that. They are the materials listed above with no coating (not counting the nickel plated – that’s a different type of “coating” than this category) and have the qualities and characteristics mentioned above. Coated strings offer many advantages. They are less prone to grime build up so it takes longer for the effects of that build up to affect the sound. The last longer (read: need to replace less often!). Typically the coating is some kind of polymer. Colored coatings are also available. Thicker-coated strings are also better for fretless guitars and basses in that they are less harsh on the fingerboard but have the potential to affect the sound more than a thinner coated string. Coated strings also reduce finger squeak.

Common Time: An alternative name for “four-four” (4/4) time. It can be indicated by the letter “C” in the time signature of sheet music. (The “C” is not, technically, an abbreviation of “Common”. See this article on time signatures.)

Mid-side Recording: A recording technique using two microphones. The “mid” microphone is typically one with a cardioid (or other directional) pickup pattern pointed toward the primary source. The “side” microphone is typically one with a figure eight pickup pattern pointed at right angles to the primary source. The “mid” recording is the main, direct part of the sound and is panned to the middle. The “side” recording is the ambient part of the sound and is usually duplicated, phase inverted, and then the original and the duplicate are panned full left and full right, respectively. This, plus some balancing, allows the apparent stereo field to be widened or narrowed giving the recorded sound a more or less spacious feel. Another benefit is that the two sides can be combined with the mid in such a way as to reduce or remove the ambient sounds altogether for a more “true” mono output.

Mid-side Equalization: A very similar stereo field “widening” effect to that of mid-side recording can also be achieved with manipulation of any stereo recording. An artificial mid is created by extracting what is the same between the left and right channels. An artificial side is created by extracting what is different in the left and right channels. The produced mid and side can then be balanced to bring out more of the side, thus widening the stereo field, or less side to narrow it. It is fairly common to clean up a mix with a “muddy” low end, by applying a high pass filter to the side channel. This leaves a cleaner final mix, while still maintaining a good stereo field.

Filter: An audio filter is any effect applied to sound that eliminates part of the sound wave. The most common types are high pass, low pass, and band pass filters which eliminate the low frequencies, high frequencies, and both high and low frequencies, respectively. While not commonly considered a “filter”, analog clipping (used in distortion and overdrive effects) could be viewed as amplitude filters that cut off the top and bottom of the sound waves.

Boost: An audio boost is any effect applied to sound that increases the amplitude of all or part of the frequencies of the sound. The most obvious effect of this is to increase the volume. Boosts that apply only to certain frequencies can have a similar effect to audio filters.

Ninth chords: A ninth chord, for example C9, is formed using the major triad, plus the seventh and ninth scale degree. When called a “dominant ninth” or when not otherwise specified, the chord uses a minor seventh. If the chord is called major (Cmaj9), then the major seventh is used. In both cases, the ninth is an octave above the major second, not the minor second.

Impromptu: In both musical performance and general usage, impromptu means, without pre-planning. For example, a band taking requests from the audience is creating an impromptu setlist.

Improvisation: Creating music (or anything else, really) “on the fly”. For example, a Jam band might improvise additional sections to their existing songs.

Enharmonic: Notes that map to the same pitch are considered enharmonic. For example, C♯ and D♭.

Fermata: A fermata is a musical notation symbol placed over a note or rest to indicate that the note or rest should be held longer than its typical duration. The exact length of the hold is left to the discretion of the performers and/or conductor, however most often the length is doubled or more. Although less common, an inverted fermata can be used under a note or rest. The effect is the same. Due to its appearance, the fermata is also sometimes called the “birdseye” or “cyclops eye”. Due to its effect, it is also called a “hold”, “pause”, or “grand pause”. For more information and a visual example, see the Wikipedia entry.

Bus: In audio mixing, a bus is any path through the mixer that allows for adding multiple audio signals together, processing them as a group, and directing them on to another bus or to an output channel.

Channel: In audio mixing, a channel is an input or output to get audio signals into or out of the mixer. Most mixers allow each channel to have its own processing (e.g. equalizer, FX, volume fader, and pan). Mixing hardware is often sold by the number of channels available. A 32-channel mixer, will have 32 input channels. A 4/2 desktop mixer will have 4 input channels and 2 output channels.

Harmonics (in guitar playing): Playing a note in such a way that some of the harmonic tones are cancelled. These can be broken down into several types, including: natural or open harmonics, artificial harmonics, tapped harmonics, and pinch harmonics (squealies). See: Guitar Harmonics

Natural or Open Harmonics: Picking or plucking an open string while lightly touching one of the node points on the string, quickly releasing the touch just after the string starts to vibrate. There are node points in many places along the neck, however typically the 12th, 7th, or 5th fret are the most used and easiest to make ring.

Artifical Harmonics: Similar in concept to natural harmonics, artificial harmonics are played by fretting a note and lightly touching and releasing the point 12 frets up from the fretted note while picking or plucking the string. For example, if the second fret is pressed, the harmonic would be played at the fourteenth fret. Theoretically, any of the other nodes of the fretted string would work, however in practice they are more rarely used and somewhat harder to play.

Tapped Harmonics: Tapped harmonics are similar to artificial harmonics in that the harmonic is played typically twelve frets up from a fretted note. However, rather than playing the string while lightly touching the twelfth fret up, the fret is “tapped” with the picking hand. This often results in both the note at the twelfth fret up being heard as well as the harmonic.

Pinch Harmonics (Squealies): Pinch harmonics are played by letting the thumb or finger of the picking hand lightly touch the string after the plectrum has picked the string. These can be done at several nodes, most commonly at about the location of the neck pickup on an electric guitar. These harmonics typically result in a very high-pitched sound, leading them to be called “squealies”. Because of the location near the end of the string, the lack of consistent references (i.e. no frets) to use as a guide to the node points, and the overall trickiness of touching the string lightly at the right time with the thumb or finger while picking, pinch harmonics require significant practice to play consistently well.

The Dimebag Squealy: The “Dimebag squealy” is an open harmonic played in a specific way using a vibrato arm (aka “whammy bar”) to get more of a pinch harmonic sound. It is somewhat difficult to explain. Rather than picking the string, the fretting hand “flicks” the string near the point of the harmonic node. Then, the whammy bar (most often a Floyd Rose style) is used to significantly loosen the string. Finally, while letting the whammy bar up, the fretting hand lightly touches and releases the harmonic node. The note becomes a squeal, and the whammy is used to vary the tone/pitch as desired. Here is a video of Dimebag Darrel himself explaining the technique: https://youtu.be/nGzxKNz3cgc

Open Chords: Chords played with some open (non-fretted) strings. Usually the first chords learned when learning to play guitar.

Moveable Chords: Chords played with no open strings. Thus, the shape is moveable to other locations up and down the neck to create other chords.

Barre Chords: A special group of moveable chords where the index finger creates essentially a capo-like backstop and otherwise using shapes similar to open chords.

Accelerando: Often abbreviated as “acc,” means to gradually increase the speed, or tempo.

Ritardo: Often abbreviated as “rit”, means to gradually decrease the speed, or tempo.

A tempo: A term meaning to return to the previous tempo.

Chord inversion: While “inversion” has a few meanings, a chord inversion is generally referring to a triad based upon its lowest note. For example, the C Major triad consists of C, E, and G. If the lowest note played is a C, the chord is considered in the “root position”. The first inversion would have an E as the lowest note, and the second inversion would have a G. The order of the other notes in the chord, other that the lowest that is, does not matter in terms of what inversion it is called. The full ordering is called the “voicing” of the chord.

P Bass: The Precision Bass, or P Bass as it is more commonly called, was the very first electric bass. Designed by Leo Fender and first sold in 1951, it had one single-coil pickup and a slab body. By 1957, it had evolved into the version seen today with a single, split-coil, hum-bucking pickup, a contour body, and larger headstock. The P Bass has a deep, warm tone with strong mid-range presence. [More info]

J Bass: The Jazz Bass, or J Bass was conceived by Fender in 1960 as a deluxe model that would be easier to play and have a brighter sound than the P Bass. The name came from the Jazzmaster guitar, which was released slightly earlier and had a similar body shape. The J Bass generally has two, single-coil pickups, and its brighter sound is used when a more “front of the mix” sound is desired. [More info]

U Bass: The U Bass, first produced by Kala Brand Music in 2009, is essentially a ukulele turned into a bass. Kala started with a baritone-size ukulele body, adding two inches to the neck for a 21″ scale length. In order to produce solid, bass foundational tones, the strings are specifically made for this shorter scale length. They are generally polyurethane with electric and acoustic-electric version using piezo pickups. [More info]